{"id":225,"date":"2017-11-07T20:07:19","date_gmt":"2017-11-07T20:07:19","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/chapter\/particles\/"},"modified":"2018-01-19T11:35:59","modified_gmt":"2018-01-19T11:35:59","slug":"particles","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/chapter\/particles\/","title":{"rendered":"Particles; Adverbs; Defective Verbs"},"content":{"raw":"\n[caption id=\"attachment_2374\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1024\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.com\/app\/uploads\/sites\/48881\/2017\/11\/i-5499.jpeg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-224\" src=\"http:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/navegarvela\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2017\/11\/i-5499.jpeg\" alt=\"2012.27.0084 (8-209)\" width=\"1024\" height=\"713\"><\/a> A polished or worn field stone used as a weight measuring \u03b4\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03ac(\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd), or two staters. ca. 500 B.C. Athenian Agora Excavations.[\/caption]\n<hr>\n<h2><strong>Vocabulary Wrap-Up<\/strong><\/h2>\n<div><\/div>\n<div>In the lesson, we wrap up some essential vocabulary, including:<\/div>\n<ul>\n<li>particles<\/li>\n<li>question and answer words<\/li>\n<li>adverbs<\/li>\n<li>defective verbs<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div><\/div>\n<div>\n<hr>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<h2><strong>Particles<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p>One part of speech that is pervasive in much of Greek is the PARTICLE. Particles are words that have a grammatical function, but have little meaning on their own. In other words, while nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs all have specific lexical \u2013&nbsp;or dictionary \u2013&nbsp;meanings, particles express grammatical relationships. For example, in English, the word <em>to<\/em> is often used as a preposition: <em>I am going to the store.<\/em> But the word <em>to<\/em> when used as part of an English&nbsp;infinitive \u2013 <em>to go<\/em> \u2013 is not a preposition, but a particle that grammatically marks&nbsp;the verb <em>go<\/em> as an infinitive.<\/p>\n<p>Greek uses many more particles than written English. Many of&nbsp;these Greek particles act&nbsp;essentially as sentence adverbs, serving&nbsp;either&nbsp;as sign posts that mark&nbsp;the underlying grammatical sentence&nbsp;structure, or providing&nbsp;an emotional emphasis to a word, clause, or sentence that expresses&nbsp;the mood or attitude of the writer. These particles provide a subtle and rich character to Greek that can sometimes be difficult to express in formal written English (S 2771). These particles often are best captured, in fact,&nbsp;in spoken English through the use&nbsp;of pitch, pauses, stress, and \"spoken English\" particles. For example, consider&nbsp;the \"spoken English\" particles <em>alright<\/em> and <em>well<\/em> in the following English sentences.&nbsp;What mood or attitude does each \"spoken English\" particle give to its respective sentence?<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><em><span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">Alright<\/span>, let's go to movies.<\/em><\/li>\n<li><em><span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">Well<\/span>, I didn't do my Greek homework, yet, so maybe not.<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>The conjunctions <span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd<\/span> and <span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd<\/span>\u2026<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b4\u03ad<\/span> are particles. Other particles include:<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b1\u1f56<\/span> \u201con the other hand\u2026\u201d<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b3\u03b5<\/span> intensifies and sharpens the word(s) before it<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b4\u03ae<\/span> literally \u201cnow!\u201d but more generally emphatic<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f26<\/span> emphasizes the particle that follows<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9<\/span> marks a transition, restatement or conclusion<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9<\/span> postpositive \u201cof course\u201d (emphatic in replies); \u201chowever\u201d (in a transition)<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc\u03ae\u03bd<\/span> follows a particle that it emphasizes<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bd\u1fe6\u03bd, \u03bd\u03c5\u03bd\u03af<\/span> \u201dnow\u201d \u201cas it is now\u2026\u201d<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bf\u1f50\u03ba\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd<\/span> sets up an expectation to agree<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0\u03ad\u03c1<\/span> enclitic, an emphatic suffix following relatives and conjunctions<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<hr>\n<div>\n<h2><strong>Questions and Answers<\/strong><\/h2>\n<div>Questions<\/div>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f06\u03c1\u03b1<\/span> This word has no independent meaning: it simply turns a statement into a yes\/no question.<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5<\/span> when?<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0\u03bf\u1fe6<\/span> where?<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0\u1ff6\u03c2<\/span> how?<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd<\/span> whether<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div>Answers<\/div>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bd\u03b1\u03af<\/span>&nbsp; yes<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1<\/span> definitely yes<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bf\u1f54<\/span> no<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<hr>\n<h2><strong style=\"font-family: 'Playfair Display', 'GFS Neohellenic', sans-serif\">Adverbs<\/strong><\/h2>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<div>You have already encountered adverbs created from adjectives. Additional adverbs are as follows:<\/div>\n<div><\/div>\n<div>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f00\u03b5\u03af<\/span> always<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f04\u03bd\u03c9<\/span> up<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f04\u03c1\u03c4\u03b9<\/span> now<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b1\u1f56\u03b8\u03b9\u03c2<\/span> again<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03af\u03ba\u03b1<\/span> immediately<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b5\u1f36\u03c4\u03b1<\/span> then, next<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f10\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6<\/span> there<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f14\u03bd\u03b8\u03b1<\/span> there<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f10\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03b8\u03b1<\/span> here, there<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f14\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03c4\u03b1<\/span> then, next<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f14\u03c4\u03b9<\/span> still<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b5\u1f56<\/span> well<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b5\u1f50\u03b8\u03cd\u03c2<\/span> immediately<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f24\u03b4\u03b7<\/span> already<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc\u03ac\u03bb\u03b1<\/span> very, very much<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1<\/span> most, most of all, certainly<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc\u1fb6\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd<\/span> more, rather<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bf\u1f50\u03ba\u03ad\u03c4\u03b9<\/span> no longer<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd<\/span> back, backwards<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c4\u03b5<\/span> always, at all times<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0\u03bb\u03ad\u03bf\u03bd<\/span> more, rather<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03ba\u03b9\u03c2<\/span> often<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03b5<\/span> sometime<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5<\/span> somewhere<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0\u03c1\u03af\u03bd<\/span> before, until; formerly<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5<\/span> then<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<hr>\n<h2><strong>Prepositions<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p>Some adverbs also function like prepositions:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f05\u03bc\u03b1<\/span> together with (+dat.)<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f04\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5<\/span> without, except, besides (+gen.)<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f04\u03c7\u03c1\u03b9<\/span>(<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c2<\/span>) until (+gen.)<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f15\u03bd\u03b5\u03ba\u03b1<\/span> because of (+gen.)<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f14\u03be\u03c9<\/span> outside of (+gen.)<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03be\u03cd<\/span> between (+gen.)<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc\u03ad\u03c7\u03c1\u03b9<\/span> as far as (+ gen.)<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f41\u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c9<\/span> behind, after (+gen.)<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03bd<\/span> except (+gen.)<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c7\u03c9\u03c1\u03af\u03c2<\/span> separately, without (+gen.)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<hr>\n<h2><strong>Conjunctions<\/strong><\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f35\u03bd\u03b1<\/span> where; purpose: so that, in order that<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc\u03ad\u03c7\u03c1\u03b9<\/span> until<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f45\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5<\/span> where, wherever<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f45\u03c0\u03c9\u03c2<\/span> how; purpose: so that, in order that<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f65\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5<\/span> result: so that<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div><\/div>\n<hr>\n<h2><strong>Defective Verbs<\/strong><\/h2>\n<div>\n<div>\n<div>\n<div><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<div>It may seem striking to consider the possible number of inflections that a Greek verb may undergo to reflect all possible tenses. It is perhaps more striking, however, that NO Greek verb was ever inflected in every possible tense (S 362). That said, some verbs are particularly irregular or defective. lacking in some tenses. The following DEFECTIVE VERBS do not have one or more of the first three principal parts.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div><\/div>\n<div>\n<ul>\n<li>-----, <span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b2\u03b9\u03ce\u03c3\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9<\/span>, <span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f10\u03b2\u03af\u03c9\u03bd<\/span> live<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b5\u1f36\u03bc\u03b9<\/span>&nbsp;go<\/li>\n<li>-----, <span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f10\u03c1\u03ae\u03c3\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9<\/span>, <span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f20\u03c1\u03cc\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd<\/span> ask<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f25\u03ba\u03c9<\/span>, <span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f25\u03be\u03c9<\/span> have arrived, be present (this&nbsp;verb has a perfect active stem and perfect meaning, but it conjugates just as a regular \u2013\u03c9 verb).<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9<\/span> lie (this verb serves as the perfect passive of <span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c4\u03af\u03b8\u03b7\u03bc\u03b9<\/span> in the sense of&nbsp;<em>to have been put<\/em> <em>somewhere<\/em>).<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bf\u1f34\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9 <\/span>or&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bf\u1f36\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9<\/span> (parenthetical) I think<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c7\u03c1\u03ae<\/span> it is necessary<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b5\u1f36\u03bc\u03b9<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>The verb <span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b5\u1f36\u03bc\u03b9&nbsp;<\/span>is formed from the stem <span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f30<\/span>-\/<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b5\u1f30<\/span>-. As often with -<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc\u03b9<\/span> verbs, the singular shows the long vowel sound (<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b5\u1f30<\/span>) and the plural has the short vowel sound (<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f30<\/span>). When inflected in the present tense, it usually is future tense in meaning: <em>I will go<\/em> (S 774). To express <em>I go<\/em> in the present tense, <span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f14\u03c1\u03c7\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9<\/span> is used.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>The Present Indicative Active of <span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b5\u1f36\u03bc\u03b9<\/span>&nbsp;(S 773; GPH p. 175)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<table class=\"no-lines\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b5\u1f36\u03bc\u03b9<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f34\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b5\u1f36<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f34\u03c4\u03b5<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b5\u1f36\u03c3\u03b9<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f34\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\">infinitive:&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f30\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\">imperative:&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f34\u03b8\u03b9<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\">participle:&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f30\u03ce\u03bd \u1f30\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b1 \u1f30\u03cc\u03bd<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>The Imperfect Indicative Active of <span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b5\u1f36\u03bc\u03b9<\/span>&nbsp;(S 773; GPH p. 175)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<table class=\"no-lines\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f96\u03b1 <\/span>or<span style=\"color: #ff0000\"> \u1f94\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f96\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f94\u03b5\u03b9\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1 <\/span>or<span style=\"color: #ff0000\"> \u1f94\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f96\u03c4\u03b5<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f94\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd <\/span>or<span style=\"color: #ff0000\"> \u1f94\u03b5\u03b9<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f96\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd <\/span>or<span style=\"color: #ff0000\"> \u1f94\u03b5\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div><\/div>\n<div>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\">\u2013 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u2013<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n","rendered":"<figure id=\"attachment_2374\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2374\" style=\"width: 1024px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.com\/app\/uploads\/sites\/48881\/2017\/11\/i-5499.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-224\" src=\"\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/navegarvela\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2017\/11\/i-5499.jpeg\" alt=\"2012.27.0084 (8-209)\" width=\"1024\" height=\"713\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2017\/11\/i-5499.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2017\/11\/i-5499-300x209.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2017\/11\/i-5499-768x535.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2017\/11\/i-5499-65x45.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2017\/11\/i-5499-225x157.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2017\/11\/i-5499-350x244.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2374\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">A polished or worn field stone used as a weight measuring \u03b4\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03ac(\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd), or two staters. ca. 500 B.C. Athenian Agora Excavations.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<hr \/>\n<h2><strong>Vocabulary Wrap-Up<\/strong><\/h2>\n<div><\/div>\n<div>In the lesson, we wrap up some essential vocabulary, including:<\/div>\n<ul>\n<li>particles<\/li>\n<li>question and answer words<\/li>\n<li>adverbs<\/li>\n<li>defective verbs<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div><\/div>\n<div>\n<hr \/>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<h2><strong>Particles<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p>One part of speech that is pervasive in much of Greek is the PARTICLE. Particles are words that have a grammatical function, but have little meaning on their own. In other words, while nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs all have specific lexical \u2013&nbsp;or dictionary \u2013&nbsp;meanings, particles express grammatical relationships. For example, in English, the word <em>to<\/em> is often used as a preposition: <em>I am going to the store.<\/em> But the word <em>to<\/em> when used as part of an English&nbsp;infinitive \u2013 <em>to go<\/em> \u2013 is not a preposition, but a particle that grammatically marks&nbsp;the verb <em>go<\/em> as an infinitive.<\/p>\n<p>Greek uses many more particles than written English. Many of&nbsp;these Greek particles act&nbsp;essentially as sentence adverbs, serving&nbsp;either&nbsp;as sign posts that mark&nbsp;the underlying grammatical sentence&nbsp;structure, or providing&nbsp;an emotional emphasis to a word, clause, or sentence that expresses&nbsp;the mood or attitude of the writer. These particles provide a subtle and rich character to Greek that can sometimes be difficult to express in formal written English (S 2771). These particles often are best captured, in fact,&nbsp;in spoken English through the use&nbsp;of pitch, pauses, stress, and &#8220;spoken English&#8221; particles. For example, consider&nbsp;the &#8220;spoken English&#8221; particles <em>alright<\/em> and <em>well<\/em> in the following English sentences.&nbsp;What mood or attitude does each &#8220;spoken English&#8221; particle give to its respective sentence?<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><em><span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">Alright<\/span>, let&#8217;s go to movies.<\/em><\/li>\n<li><em><span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">Well<\/span>, I didn&#8217;t do my Greek homework, yet, so maybe not.<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>The conjunctions <span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd<\/span> and <span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd<\/span>\u2026<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b4\u03ad<\/span> are particles. Other particles include:<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b1\u1f56<\/span> \u201con the other hand\u2026\u201d<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b3\u03b5<\/span> intensifies and sharpens the word(s) before it<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b4\u03ae<\/span> literally \u201cnow!\u201d but more generally emphatic<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f26<\/span> emphasizes the particle that follows<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03ba\u03b1\u03af\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9<\/span> marks a transition, restatement or conclusion<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9<\/span> postpositive \u201cof course\u201d (emphatic in replies); \u201chowever\u201d (in a transition)<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc\u03ae\u03bd<\/span> follows a particle that it emphasizes<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bd\u1fe6\u03bd, \u03bd\u03c5\u03bd\u03af<\/span> \u201dnow\u201d \u201cas it is now\u2026\u201d<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bf\u1f50\u03ba\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd<\/span> sets up an expectation to agree<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0\u03ad\u03c1<\/span> enclitic, an emphatic suffix following relatives and conjunctions<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<div>\n<h2><strong>Questions and Answers<\/strong><\/h2>\n<div>Questions<\/div>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f06\u03c1\u03b1<\/span> This word has no independent meaning: it simply turns a statement into a yes\/no question.<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5<\/span> when?<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0\u03bf\u1fe6<\/span> where?<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0\u1ff6\u03c2<\/span> how?<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd<\/span> whether<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div>Answers<\/div>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bd\u03b1\u03af<\/span>&nbsp; yes<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1<\/span> definitely yes<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bf\u1f54<\/span> no<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h2><strong style=\"font-family: 'Playfair Display', 'GFS Neohellenic', sans-serif\">Adverbs<\/strong><\/h2>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<div>You have already encountered adverbs created from adjectives. Additional adverbs are as follows:<\/div>\n<div><\/div>\n<div>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f00\u03b5\u03af<\/span> always<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f04\u03bd\u03c9<\/span> up<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f04\u03c1\u03c4\u03b9<\/span> now<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b1\u1f56\u03b8\u03b9\u03c2<\/span> again<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03af\u03ba\u03b1<\/span> immediately<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b5\u1f36\u03c4\u03b1<\/span> then, next<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f10\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6<\/span> there<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f14\u03bd\u03b8\u03b1<\/span> there<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f10\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u1fe6\u03b8\u03b1<\/span> here, there<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f14\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03c4\u03b1<\/span> then, next<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f14\u03c4\u03b9<\/span> still<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b5\u1f56<\/span> well<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b5\u1f50\u03b8\u03cd\u03c2<\/span> immediately<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f24\u03b4\u03b7<\/span> already<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc\u03ac\u03bb\u03b1<\/span> very, very much<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1<\/span> most, most of all, certainly<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc\u1fb6\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd<\/span> more, rather<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bf\u1f50\u03ba\u03ad\u03c4\u03b9<\/span> no longer<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd<\/span> back, backwards<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0\u03ac\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c4\u03b5<\/span> always, at all times<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0\u03bb\u03ad\u03bf\u03bd<\/span> more, rather<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac\u03ba\u03b9\u03c2<\/span> often<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0\u03bf\u03c4\u03b5<\/span> sometime<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5<\/span> somewhere<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0\u03c1\u03af\u03bd<\/span> before, until; formerly<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c4\u03cc\u03c4\u03b5<\/span> then<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<hr \/>\n<h2><strong>Prepositions<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p>Some adverbs also function like prepositions:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f05\u03bc\u03b1<\/span> together with (+dat.)<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f04\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5<\/span> without, except, besides (+gen.)<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f04\u03c7\u03c1\u03b9<\/span>(<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c2<\/span>) until (+gen.)<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f15\u03bd\u03b5\u03ba\u03b1<\/span> because of (+gen.)<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f14\u03be\u03c9<\/span> outside of (+gen.)<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03be\u03cd<\/span> between (+gen.)<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc\u03ad\u03c7\u03c1\u03b9<\/span> as far as (+ gen.)<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f41\u03c0\u03af\u03c3\u03c9<\/span> behind, after (+gen.)<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0\u03bb\u03ae\u03bd<\/span> except (+gen.)<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c7\u03c9\u03c1\u03af\u03c2<\/span> separately, without (+gen.)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h2><strong>Conjunctions<\/strong><\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f35\u03bd\u03b1<\/span> where; purpose: so that, in order that<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc\u03ad\u03c7\u03c1\u03b9<\/span> until<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f45\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5<\/span> where, wherever<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f45\u03c0\u03c9\u03c2<\/span> how; purpose: so that, in order that<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f65\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5<\/span> result: so that<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div><\/div>\n<hr \/>\n<h2><strong>Defective Verbs<\/strong><\/h2>\n<div>\n<div>\n<div>\n<div><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<div>It may seem striking to consider the possible number of inflections that a Greek verb may undergo to reflect all possible tenses. It is perhaps more striking, however, that NO Greek verb was ever inflected in every possible tense (S 362). That said, some verbs are particularly irregular or defective. lacking in some tenses. The following DEFECTIVE VERBS do not have one or more of the first three principal parts.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div><\/div>\n<div>\n<ul>\n<li>&#8212;&#8211;, <span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b2\u03b9\u03ce\u03c3\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9<\/span>, <span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f10\u03b2\u03af\u03c9\u03bd<\/span> live<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b5\u1f36\u03bc\u03b9<\/span>&nbsp;go<\/li>\n<li>&#8212;&#8211;, <span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f10\u03c1\u03ae\u03c3\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9<\/span>, <span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f20\u03c1\u03cc\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd<\/span> ask<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f25\u03ba\u03c9<\/span>, <span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f25\u03be\u03c9<\/span> have arrived, be present (this&nbsp;verb has a perfect active stem and perfect meaning, but it conjugates just as a regular \u2013\u03c9 verb).<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9<\/span> lie (this verb serves as the perfect passive of <span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c4\u03af\u03b8\u03b7\u03bc\u03b9<\/span> in the sense of&nbsp;<em>to have been put<\/em> <em>somewhere<\/em>).<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bf\u1f34\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9 <\/span>or&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bf\u1f36\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9<\/span> (parenthetical) I think<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c7\u03c1\u03ae<\/span> it is necessary<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b5\u1f36\u03bc\u03b9<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p>The verb <span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b5\u1f36\u03bc\u03b9&nbsp;<\/span>is formed from the stem <span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f30<\/span>-\/<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b5\u1f30<\/span>-. As often with &#8211;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc\u03b9<\/span> verbs, the singular shows the long vowel sound (<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b5\u1f30<\/span>) and the plural has the short vowel sound (<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f30<\/span>). When inflected in the present tense, it usually is future tense in meaning: <em>I will go<\/em> (S 774). To express <em>I go<\/em> in the present tense, <span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f14\u03c1\u03c7\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9<\/span> is used.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>The Present Indicative Active of <span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b5\u1f36\u03bc\u03b9<\/span>&nbsp;(S 773; GPH p. 175)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<table class=\"no-lines\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b5\u1f36\u03bc\u03b9<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f34\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b5\u1f36<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f34\u03c4\u03b5<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b5\u1f36\u03c3\u03b9<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f34\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\">infinitive:&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f30\u03ad\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\">imperative:&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f34\u03b8\u03b9<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px\">participle:&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f30\u03ce\u03bd \u1f30\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b1 \u1f30\u03cc\u03bd<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>The Imperfect Indicative Active of <span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b5\u1f36\u03bc\u03b9<\/span>&nbsp;(S 773; GPH p. 175)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<table class=\"no-lines\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f96\u03b1 <\/span>or<span style=\"color: #ff0000\"> \u1f94\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f96\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f94\u03b5\u03b9\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1 <\/span>or<span style=\"color: #ff0000\"> \u1f94\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f96\u03c4\u03b5<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f94\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd <\/span>or<span style=\"color: #ff0000\"> \u1f94\u03b5\u03b9<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<p class=\"no-indent\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u1f96\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd <\/span>or<span style=\"color: #ff0000\"> \u1f94\u03b5\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div><\/div>\n<div>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\">\u2013 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 \u2013<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"menu_order":1,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-225","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":18,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/225","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/225\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":226,"href":"https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/225\/revisions\/226"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/18"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/225\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=225"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=225"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=225"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=225"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}