{"id":23,"date":"2016-08-30T14:31:52","date_gmt":"2016-08-30T14:31:52","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/chapter\/2-greek-consonants\/"},"modified":"2018-01-19T11:35:05","modified_gmt":"2018-01-19T11:35:05","slug":"2-greek-consonants","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/chapter\/2-greek-consonants\/","title":{"rendered":"Greek Consonants"},"content":{"raw":"\n[caption id=\"attachment_268\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"2048\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/ancientgreek.pressbooks.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/48881\/2016\/08\/P-32560-and-32559.jpeg\"><img class=\"wp-image-22 size-full\" src=\"http:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/navegarvela\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2016\/02\/P-32560-and-32559.jpeg\" alt=\"2010.01.0320\" width=\"2048\" height=\"959\"><\/a> Ostraka of Xanthippos Arriphronos, father of Perikles, dated to ca. 484 B.C. Athenian Agora Excavations.[\/caption]\n<hr>\n<h2><strong>Consonants<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p><strong>I. Labials, Dentals, Palatals<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Greek consonants are built around just three basic sounds:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>LABIALS, which are&nbsp;formed with the lips.<\/li>\n<li>DENTALS, which are&nbsp;formed&nbsp;with the tongue and teeth.<\/li>\n<li>PALATALS,<span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><span style=\"color: #000000\"> which are<\/span>&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">formed<\/span><\/span>&nbsp;with the tongue and palate.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Labial<\/td>\n<td>Dental<\/td>\n<td>Palatal<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0<\/span>&nbsp;(p)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c4<\/span>&nbsp;(t)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03ba<\/span>&nbsp;(k)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">&nbsp;\u03a0 \u03c0<\/span><\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;pi<\/td>\n<td>\u201cp\u201d<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;= P p<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">&nbsp;\u03a4 \u03c4&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/span><\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;tau<\/td>\n<td>\u201ct\u201d<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;=&nbsp;T t<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u039a \u03ba<\/span><\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;kappa<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;\u201ck\u201d<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;= C c or&nbsp;K k<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>Notice&nbsp;that in pronouncing these three consonants, the airflow or breathing passage must be momentarily closed. For this reason, these are sometimes called STOP&nbsp;consonants.&nbsp;Pronouncing the same three sounds while vibrating your vocal cords produces three new consonants, called VOICED&nbsp;STOPS.<\/p>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Labial<\/td>\n<td>Dental<\/td>\n<td>Palatal<\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0<\/span>&nbsp;(p)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c4<\/span>&nbsp;(t)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03ba<\/span>&nbsp;(k)<\/td>\n<td>= unvoiced<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b2<\/span>&nbsp;(b)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b4<\/span>&nbsp;(d)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b3<\/span>&nbsp;(g)<\/td>\n<td>= voiced<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u0392 \u03b2<\/span><\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;beta<\/td>\n<td>\u201cb\u201d<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;=&nbsp;B b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u0394 \u03b4 &nbsp;<\/span><\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;delta<\/td>\n<td>\u201cd\u201d<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;=&nbsp;D d<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u0393 \u03b3<\/span><\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;gamma<\/td>\n<td>\u201cg\u201d<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;=&nbsp;G g<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>Add a breathing or \u201ch\u201d sound to the consonants, and you get a third&nbsp;set, called ASPIRATED STOPS.<\/p>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Labial<\/td>\n<td>Dental<\/td>\n<td>Palatal<\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0<\/span>&nbsp;(p)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c4<\/span>&nbsp;(t)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03ba<\/span>&nbsp;(k)<\/td>\n<td>= unvoiced<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b2<\/span>&nbsp;(b)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b4<\/span>&nbsp;(d)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b3<\/span>&nbsp;(g)<\/td>\n<td>= voiced<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c6&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ph)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b8&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(th)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c7&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(kh)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td>= aspirated<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03a6 \u03c6<\/span><\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;phi<\/td>\n<td>\u201cf\u201d<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;= Ph ph<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u0398 \u03b8 &nbsp;<\/span><\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;theta<\/td>\n<td>\u201cth\u201d<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;=&nbsp;Th th<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03a7 \u03c7<\/span><\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;chi<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;\u201ckh\u201d<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;= Ch ch or&nbsp;Kh kh<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p><strong>II. The Trouble with Sigma<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Greek is strange when it comes to pronouncing and writing words with the \u201cs\u201d sound, represented&nbsp;by the Greek letter&nbsp;<em>sigma<\/em>. On the one hand, the sound is very common in Greek. On the other, if a word is odd or difficult to spell or pronounce, it seems that a&nbsp;<em>sigma<\/em>&nbsp;is often involved.&nbsp;Note&nbsp;what happens, for example, when <em>sigma<\/em>&nbsp;directly follows a&nbsp;labial, dental, and palatal.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Any&nbsp;labial (<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0 \u03b2 \u03c6<\/span>) +&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3<\/span>&nbsp;=&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c8<\/span><\/li>\n<li>Any&nbsp;dental&nbsp;(<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c4 \u03b4 \u03b8<\/span>) +&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3<\/span>&nbsp;=&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3<\/span><\/li>\n<li>Any&nbsp;palatal&nbsp;(<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03ba&nbsp;\u03b3 \u03c7<\/span>) +&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3<\/span>&nbsp;=&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03be<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">Athenian use of the&nbsp;DOUBLE CONSONANTS&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c8<\/span>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03be<\/span>&nbsp;began in earnest after they adopted the Ionic Greek alphabet in&nbsp;403 B.C. Before this, Athenians regularly spelled out combinations such as&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0\u03c3<\/span>,&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03ba\u03c3<\/span>, and&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c7\u03c3<\/span>. Note, for example, in the image at the top of this lesson that Athenians in 484 B.C. spelled the&nbsp;name&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u039e\u03ac\u03bd\u03b8\u03b9\u03c0\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2<\/span>&nbsp;without the double consonant:&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03a7\u03c3\u03ac\u03bd\u03b8\u03b9\u03c0\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2<\/span>.<\/div>\n<p>The resulting consonant chart now looks like this:<\/p>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Labial<\/td>\n<td>Dental<\/td>\n<td>Palatal<\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0<\/span>&nbsp;(p)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c4<\/span>&nbsp;(t)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03ba<\/span>&nbsp;(k)<\/td>\n<td>= unvoiced<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b2<\/span>&nbsp;(b)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b4<\/span>&nbsp;(d)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b3<\/span>&nbsp;(g)<\/td>\n<td>= voiced<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c6&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ph)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b8&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(th)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c7&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(kh)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td>= aspirate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c8&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ps)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(s)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03be&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ks)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td>= +&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03a8 \u03c8<\/span><\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;psi<\/td>\n<td>\u201cps\u201d<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;= Ps ps<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03a3 \u03c3 \u03c2<\/span><\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;sigma<\/td>\n<td>\u201cs\u201d<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;=&nbsp;S<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u039e \u03be<\/span><\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;xi<\/td>\n<td>\u201cks\u201d<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;=&nbsp;X x<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\"><em>Sigma<\/em>&nbsp;is unique among Greek letters&nbsp;in that it has&nbsp;two lower case versions:&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3<\/span>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c2<\/span>. The form&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c2<\/span>&nbsp;only occurs at the end of words. The&nbsp;form&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3<\/span>&nbsp;is&nbsp;used&nbsp;in all other locations, a convention that arose from the desire of early manuscript writers to have a&nbsp;cursive form that easily&nbsp;continued to the next letter.<\/div>\n<p><strong>III.&nbsp;Nasals, Liquids, and Zeta<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><span style=\"color: #000000\">While STOP consonants are made by pushing air through the mouth, <\/span><\/span>NASALS&nbsp;are formed by pushing air through the nasal cavity.&nbsp;The ancient Greek nasals are similar to the English consonants&nbsp;<em>m<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>n<\/em>, and -<em>ng<\/em>. As you review the chart below, note that in&nbsp;Greek, the&nbsp;-<em>ng<\/em>&nbsp;sound is&nbsp;produced by double&nbsp;<em>gamma<\/em>&nbsp;(-<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b3\u03b3<\/span>), not <em>nu gamma<\/em> (-<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bd\u03b3<\/span>).<\/p>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"height: 15px\">\n<td style=\"height: 15px\">Labial<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\">Dental<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\">Palatal<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 15px\">\n<td style=\"height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0<\/span>&nbsp;(p)<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c4<\/span>&nbsp;(t)<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03ba<\/span>&nbsp;(k)<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\">= unvoiced<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 15px\">\n<td style=\"height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b2<\/span>&nbsp;(b)<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b4<\/span>&nbsp;(d)<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b3<\/span>&nbsp;(g)<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\">= voiced<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 15px\">\n<td style=\"height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c6&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ph)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b8&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(th)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c7&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(kh)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\">= aspirate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 15.53125px\">\n<td style=\"height: 15.53125px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c8&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ps)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15.53125px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(s)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15.53125px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03be&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ks)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15.53125px\">= +&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 15px\">\n<td style=\"height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(m)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bd&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(n)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">-\u03b3\u03b3&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ng)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\">= nasals<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"height: 15.125px\">\n<td style=\"height: 15.125px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u039c \u03bc<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15.125px\">&nbsp;mu<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15.125px\">\u201cm\u201d<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15.125px\">&nbsp;=&nbsp;M m<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 15px\">\n<td style=\"height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u039d \u03bd<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\">&nbsp;nu<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\">\u201cn\u201d<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\">&nbsp;=&nbsp;N n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>LIQUIDS are consonants produced when the tongue only partially blocks airflow through the mouth during pronunciation. Like English, ancient Greek has only two liquid consonants.<\/p>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Labial<\/td>\n<td>Dental<\/td>\n<td>Palatal<\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0<\/span>&nbsp;(p)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c4<\/span>&nbsp;(t)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03ba<\/span>&nbsp;(k)<\/td>\n<td>= unvoiced<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b2<\/span>&nbsp;(b)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b4<\/span>&nbsp;(d)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b3<\/span>&nbsp;(g)<\/td>\n<td>= voiced<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c6&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ph)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b8&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(th)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c7&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(kh)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td>= aspirated<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c8&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ps)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(s)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03be&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ks)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td>= +&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(m)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bd&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(n)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b3\u03b3&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ng)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td>= nasals<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bb&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(l)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c1&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(r)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td>= liquids<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 65px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u039b \u03bb<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 122px\">&nbsp;lambda<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50px\">\u201cl\u201d<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 96px\">&nbsp;=&nbsp;L l<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 65px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03a1 \u03c1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 122px\">&nbsp;rho<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50px\">\u201cr\u201d<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 96px\">&nbsp;=&nbsp;R r<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>The last consonant,&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b6<\/span>, is a DOUBLE CONSONANT,&nbsp;originally representing either&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3\u03b4<\/span>&nbsp;or&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b4\u03c3<\/span>. The&nbsp;sound has evolved in modern Greek into a consonant similar to the English&nbsp;<em>z<\/em>, which is how most pronounce the ancient Greek&nbsp;<em>zeta<\/em>&nbsp;today.<\/p>\n<p><strong>IV.&nbsp;The Consonant Chart<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>With the addition of the&nbsp;<em>zeta<\/em>, the full&nbsp;consonant chart is&nbsp;as follows (cf. S 15-22):<\/p>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Labial<\/td>\n<td>Dental<\/td>\n<td>Palatal<\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0<\/span>&nbsp;(p)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c4<\/span>&nbsp;(t)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03ba<\/span>&nbsp;(k)<\/td>\n<td>= unvoiced<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b2<\/span>&nbsp;(b)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b4<\/span>&nbsp;(d)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b3<\/span>&nbsp;(g)<\/td>\n<td>= voiced<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c6&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ph)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b8&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(th)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c7&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(kh)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td>= aspirated<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c8&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ps)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(s)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03be&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ks)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td>= +&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(m)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bd&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(n)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b3\u03b3&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ng)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td>= nasals<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bb&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(l)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c1&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(r)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td>= liquids<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b6&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(z)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>= zeta<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u0396 \u03b6<\/span><\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;zeta<\/td>\n<td>\u201cz\u201d<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;=&nbsp;Z z<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p><strong>&nbsp;V.&nbsp;The Full Alphabet<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Taken altogether, the Greek alphabet&nbsp;has twenty-four letters.<\/p>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u0391 \u0392 \u0393 \u0394 \u0395 \u0396 \u0397 \u0398 \u0399 \u039a \u039b \u039c \u039d \u039e \u039f \u03a0 \u03a1 \u03a3 \u03a4 \u03a5 \u03a6 \u03a7 \u03a8 \u03a9<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b1 \u03b2 \u03b3 \u03b4 \u03b5 \u03b6 \u03b7 \u03b8 \u03b9 \u03ba \u03bb \u03bc \u03bd \u03be \u03bf \u03c0 \u03c1 \u03c3 \u03c2 \u03c4 \u03c5 \u03c6 \u03c7 \u03c8 \u03c9<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<p><strong>What's missing?<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Note that some English consonants are not represented in the ancient Greek alphabet, such as&nbsp;<em>j<\/em>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<em>v<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>w<\/em>. Other sounds, such as \"sh\" in \"shop\" and \"ch\" in \"chips,\" are also impossible to render precisely in the Greek alphabet!<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\">- \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 -<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<hr>\n<h2><\/h2>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Key Terms and Concepts<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>LABIALS<\/li>\n<li>DENTALS<\/li>\n<li>PALATALS<\/li>\n<li>STOP CONSONANTS<\/li>\n<li>VOICED&nbsp;STOPS<\/li>\n<li>ASPIRATED STOPS<\/li>\n<li>THE TROUBLE WITH SIGMA<\/li>\n<li>NASALS<\/li>\n<li>LIQUIDS<\/li>\n<li>DOUBLE CONSONANT<\/li>\n<li>THE CONSONANT CHART<\/li>\n<li>THE FULL ALPHABET<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Exercises<\/h3>\n<p>I. Write out the full consonant chart (a worksheet is available here: <a href=\"https:\/\/ancientgreek.pressbooks.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/48881\/2017\/09\/Blank-Consonant-Chart.pdf\">Blank Consonant Chart<\/a>).&nbsp;For a guide to writing Greek letters, click here: <a href=\"https:\/\/ancientgreek.pressbooks.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/48881\/2017\/08\/How-to-Write-Greek.pdf\">How to Write Greek<\/a>.&nbsp;Handwriting paper is available here:&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/ancientgreek.pressbooks.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/48881\/2017\/09\/Lined-Paper.pdf\">Lined Paper<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>\u0399\u0399. Practice pronouncing the following words. Stress the syllable in bold.<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba<strong>\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1<\/strong><\/li>\n<li><strong>\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1<\/strong>\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2<\/li>\n<li>\u03c8\u03c5<strong>\u03c7\u03b1\u03c2<\/strong><\/li>\n<li>\u03c3\u03c9<strong>\u03c6\u03c1\u03bf<\/strong>\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u03bf\u03bd<\/strong>\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u03bf\u03c5<\/strong>\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2<\/li>\n<li>\u03b8\u03b5\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03ba\u03c1\u03b1<strong>\u03c4\u03b9<\/strong>\u03b1<\/li>\n<li>\u03c1\u03c5\u03b8\u03bc\u03bf\u03b5\u03b9<strong>\u03b4\u03b7\u03c2<\/strong><\/li>\n<li><strong>\u03b6\u03b5\u03c5\u03b3<\/strong>\u03bd\u03c5\u03bc\u03b9<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u03b7\u03c5<\/strong>\u03c1\u03b7\u03ba\u03b1<\/li>\n<li>\u03b1\u03b8\u03bb\u03b7\u03c4\u03b9<strong>\u03ba\u1fc3<\/strong><\/li>\n<li>\u03b5\u03b3\u03c7\u03c1\u03bf<strong>\u03bd\u03b9<\/strong>\u03b6\u03c9<\/li>\n<li>\u03b5\u03be<strong>\u03b1\u03b3<\/strong>\u03c9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u03b3\u03bb\u03b9\u03c3<\/strong>\u03c7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2<\/li>\n<li>\u03c0\u03b5<strong>\u03c0\u03b1\u03c3<\/strong>\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>\u0399\u0399\u0399. Practice reading aloud the following Greek names written in capital letters.<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>\u0391\u0393\u0391\u039c\u0395\u039c\u039d\u03a9\u039d<\/li>\n<li>\u0391\u0398\u0397\u039d\u0391<\/li>\n<li>\u039f\u03a5\u03a1\u0391\u039d\u039f\u03a3<\/li>\n<li>\u039a\u039b\u03a5\u03a4\u0391\u0399\u039c\u039d\u0397\u03a3\u03a4\u03a1\u0391<\/li>\n<li>\u039f\u0399\u0394\u0399\u03a0\u039f\u03a5\u03a3<\/li>\n<li>\u0398\u0397\u03a3\u0395\u03a5\u03a3<\/li>\n<li>\u0397\u03a1\u0391\u039a\u039b\u0397\u03a3<\/li>\n<li>\u039f\u0394\u03a5\u03a3\u03a3\u0395\u03a5\u03a3<\/li>\n<li>\u03a0\u0397\u039d\u0395\u039b\u039f\u03a0\u0397<\/li>\n<li>\u03a7\u03a1\u0399\u03a3\u03a4\u039f\u03a3<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"column\"><\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n","rendered":"<figure id=\"attachment_268\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-268\" style=\"width: 2048px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/ancientgreek.pressbooks.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/48881\/2016\/08\/P-32560-and-32559.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-22 size-full\" src=\"\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/navegarvela\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2016\/02\/P-32560-and-32559.jpeg\" alt=\"2010.01.0320\" width=\"2048\" height=\"959\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2016\/02\/P-32560-and-32559.jpeg 2048w, https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2016\/02\/P-32560-and-32559-300x140.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2016\/02\/P-32560-and-32559-768x360.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2016\/02\/P-32560-and-32559-1024x480.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2016\/02\/P-32560-and-32559-65x30.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2016\/02\/P-32560-and-32559-225x105.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2016\/02\/P-32560-and-32559-350x164.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2048px) 100vw, 2048px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-268\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Ostraka of Xanthippos Arriphronos, father of Perikles, dated to ca. 484 B.C. Athenian Agora Excavations.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<hr \/>\n<h2><strong>Consonants<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p><strong>I. Labials, Dentals, Palatals<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Greek consonants are built around just three basic sounds:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>LABIALS, which are&nbsp;formed with the lips.<\/li>\n<li>DENTALS, which are&nbsp;formed&nbsp;with the tongue and teeth.<\/li>\n<li>PALATALS,<span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><span style=\"color: #000000\"> which are<\/span>&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">formed<\/span><\/span>&nbsp;with the tongue and palate.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Labial<\/td>\n<td>Dental<\/td>\n<td>Palatal<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0<\/span>&nbsp;(p)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c4<\/span>&nbsp;(t)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03ba<\/span>&nbsp;(k)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">&nbsp;\u03a0 \u03c0<\/span><\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;pi<\/td>\n<td>\u201cp\u201d<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;= P p<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">&nbsp;\u03a4 \u03c4&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/span><\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;tau<\/td>\n<td>\u201ct\u201d<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;=&nbsp;T t<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u039a \u03ba<\/span><\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;kappa<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;\u201ck\u201d<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;= C c or&nbsp;K k<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>Notice&nbsp;that in pronouncing these three consonants, the airflow or breathing passage must be momentarily closed. For this reason, these are sometimes called STOP&nbsp;consonants.&nbsp;Pronouncing the same three sounds while vibrating your vocal cords produces three new consonants, called VOICED&nbsp;STOPS.<\/p>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Labial<\/td>\n<td>Dental<\/td>\n<td>Palatal<\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0<\/span>&nbsp;(p)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c4<\/span>&nbsp;(t)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03ba<\/span>&nbsp;(k)<\/td>\n<td>= unvoiced<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b2<\/span>&nbsp;(b)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b4<\/span>&nbsp;(d)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b3<\/span>&nbsp;(g)<\/td>\n<td>= voiced<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u0392 \u03b2<\/span><\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;beta<\/td>\n<td>\u201cb\u201d<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;=&nbsp;B b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u0394 \u03b4 &nbsp;<\/span><\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;delta<\/td>\n<td>\u201cd\u201d<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;=&nbsp;D d<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u0393 \u03b3<\/span><\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;gamma<\/td>\n<td>\u201cg\u201d<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;=&nbsp;G g<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>Add a breathing or \u201ch\u201d sound to the consonants, and you get a third&nbsp;set, called ASPIRATED STOPS.<\/p>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Labial<\/td>\n<td>Dental<\/td>\n<td>Palatal<\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0<\/span>&nbsp;(p)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c4<\/span>&nbsp;(t)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03ba<\/span>&nbsp;(k)<\/td>\n<td>= unvoiced<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b2<\/span>&nbsp;(b)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b4<\/span>&nbsp;(d)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b3<\/span>&nbsp;(g)<\/td>\n<td>= voiced<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c6&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ph)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b8&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(th)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c7&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(kh)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td>= aspirated<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03a6 \u03c6<\/span><\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;phi<\/td>\n<td>\u201cf\u201d<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;= Ph ph<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u0398 \u03b8 &nbsp;<\/span><\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;theta<\/td>\n<td>\u201cth\u201d<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;=&nbsp;Th th<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03a7 \u03c7<\/span><\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;chi<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;\u201ckh\u201d<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;= Ch ch or&nbsp;Kh kh<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p><strong>II. The Trouble with Sigma<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Greek is strange when it comes to pronouncing and writing words with the \u201cs\u201d sound, represented&nbsp;by the Greek letter&nbsp;<em>sigma<\/em>. On the one hand, the sound is very common in Greek. On the other, if a word is odd or difficult to spell or pronounce, it seems that a&nbsp;<em>sigma<\/em>&nbsp;is often involved.&nbsp;Note&nbsp;what happens, for example, when <em>sigma<\/em>&nbsp;directly follows a&nbsp;labial, dental, and palatal.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Any&nbsp;labial (<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0 \u03b2 \u03c6<\/span>) +&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3<\/span>&nbsp;=&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c8<\/span><\/li>\n<li>Any&nbsp;dental&nbsp;(<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c4 \u03b4 \u03b8<\/span>) +&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3<\/span>&nbsp;=&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3<\/span><\/li>\n<li>Any&nbsp;palatal&nbsp;(<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03ba&nbsp;\u03b3 \u03c7<\/span>) +&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3<\/span>&nbsp;=&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03be<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">Athenian use of the&nbsp;DOUBLE CONSONANTS&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c8<\/span>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03be<\/span>&nbsp;began in earnest after they adopted the Ionic Greek alphabet in&nbsp;403 B.C. Before this, Athenians regularly spelled out combinations such as&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0\u03c3<\/span>,&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03ba\u03c3<\/span>, and&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c7\u03c3<\/span>. Note, for example, in the image at the top of this lesson that Athenians in 484 B.C. spelled the&nbsp;name&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u039e\u03ac\u03bd\u03b8\u03b9\u03c0\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2<\/span>&nbsp;without the double consonant:&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03a7\u03c3\u03ac\u03bd\u03b8\u03b9\u03c0\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2<\/span>.<\/div>\n<p>The resulting consonant chart now looks like this:<\/p>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Labial<\/td>\n<td>Dental<\/td>\n<td>Palatal<\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0<\/span>&nbsp;(p)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c4<\/span>&nbsp;(t)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03ba<\/span>&nbsp;(k)<\/td>\n<td>= unvoiced<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b2<\/span>&nbsp;(b)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b4<\/span>&nbsp;(d)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b3<\/span>&nbsp;(g)<\/td>\n<td>= voiced<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c6&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ph)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b8&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(th)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c7&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(kh)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td>= aspirate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c8&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ps)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(s)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03be&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ks)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td>= +&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03a8 \u03c8<\/span><\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;psi<\/td>\n<td>\u201cps\u201d<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;= Ps ps<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03a3 \u03c3 \u03c2<\/span><\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;sigma<\/td>\n<td>\u201cs\u201d<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;=&nbsp;S<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u039e \u03be<\/span><\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;xi<\/td>\n<td>\u201cks\u201d<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;=&nbsp;X x<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\"><em>Sigma<\/em>&nbsp;is unique among Greek letters&nbsp;in that it has&nbsp;two lower case versions:&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3<\/span>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c2<\/span>. The form&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c2<\/span>&nbsp;only occurs at the end of words. The&nbsp;form&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3<\/span>&nbsp;is&nbsp;used&nbsp;in all other locations, a convention that arose from the desire of early manuscript writers to have a&nbsp;cursive form that easily&nbsp;continued to the next letter.<\/div>\n<p><strong>III.&nbsp;Nasals, Liquids, and Zeta<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><span style=\"color: #000000\">While STOP consonants are made by pushing air through the mouth, <\/span><\/span>NASALS&nbsp;are formed by pushing air through the nasal cavity.&nbsp;The ancient Greek nasals are similar to the English consonants&nbsp;<em>m<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>n<\/em>, and &#8211;<em>ng<\/em>. As you review the chart below, note that in&nbsp;Greek, the&nbsp;&#8211;<em>ng<\/em>&nbsp;sound is&nbsp;produced by double&nbsp;<em>gamma<\/em>&nbsp;(-<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b3\u03b3<\/span>), not <em>nu gamma<\/em> (-<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bd\u03b3<\/span>).<\/p>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"height: 15px\">\n<td style=\"height: 15px\">Labial<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\">Dental<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\">Palatal<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 15px\">\n<td style=\"height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0<\/span>&nbsp;(p)<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c4<\/span>&nbsp;(t)<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03ba<\/span>&nbsp;(k)<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\">= unvoiced<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 15px\">\n<td style=\"height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b2<\/span>&nbsp;(b)<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b4<\/span>&nbsp;(d)<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b3<\/span>&nbsp;(g)<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\">= voiced<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 15px\">\n<td style=\"height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c6&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ph)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b8&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(th)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c7&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(kh)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\">= aspirate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 15.53125px\">\n<td style=\"height: 15.53125px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c8&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ps)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15.53125px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(s)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15.53125px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03be&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ks)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15.53125px\">= +&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 15px\">\n<td style=\"height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(m)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bd&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(n)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">-\u03b3\u03b3&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ng)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\">= nasals<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"height: 15.125px\">\n<td style=\"height: 15.125px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u039c \u03bc<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15.125px\">&nbsp;mu<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15.125px\">\u201cm\u201d<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15.125px\">&nbsp;=&nbsp;M m<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 15px\">\n<td style=\"height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u039d \u03bd<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\">&nbsp;nu<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\">\u201cn\u201d<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px\">&nbsp;=&nbsp;N n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>LIQUIDS are consonants produced when the tongue only partially blocks airflow through the mouth during pronunciation. Like English, ancient Greek has only two liquid consonants.<\/p>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Labial<\/td>\n<td>Dental<\/td>\n<td>Palatal<\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0<\/span>&nbsp;(p)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c4<\/span>&nbsp;(t)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03ba<\/span>&nbsp;(k)<\/td>\n<td>= unvoiced<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b2<\/span>&nbsp;(b)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b4<\/span>&nbsp;(d)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b3<\/span>&nbsp;(g)<\/td>\n<td>= voiced<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c6&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ph)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b8&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(th)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c7&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(kh)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td>= aspirated<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c8&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ps)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(s)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03be&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ks)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td>= +&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(m)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bd&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(n)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b3\u03b3&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ng)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td>= nasals<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bb&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(l)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c1&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(r)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td>= liquids<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 65px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u039b \u03bb<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 122px\">&nbsp;lambda<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50px\">\u201cl\u201d<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 96px\">&nbsp;=&nbsp;L l<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 65px\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03a1 \u03c1<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 122px\">&nbsp;rho<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50px\">\u201cr\u201d<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 96px\">&nbsp;=&nbsp;R r<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>The last consonant,&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b6<\/span>, is a DOUBLE CONSONANT,&nbsp;originally representing either&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3\u03b4<\/span>&nbsp;or&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b4\u03c3<\/span>. The&nbsp;sound has evolved in modern Greek into a consonant similar to the English&nbsp;<em>z<\/em>, which is how most pronounce the ancient Greek&nbsp;<em>zeta<\/em>&nbsp;today.<\/p>\n<p><strong>IV.&nbsp;The Consonant Chart<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>With the addition of the&nbsp;<em>zeta<\/em>, the full&nbsp;consonant chart is&nbsp;as follows (cf. S 15-22):<\/p>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Labial<\/td>\n<td>Dental<\/td>\n<td>Palatal<\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c0<\/span>&nbsp;(p)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c4<\/span>&nbsp;(t)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03ba<\/span>&nbsp;(k)<\/td>\n<td>= unvoiced<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b2<\/span>&nbsp;(b)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b4<\/span>&nbsp;(d)<\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b3<\/span>&nbsp;(g)<\/td>\n<td>= voiced<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c6&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ph)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b8&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(th)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c7&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(kh)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td>= aspirated<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c8&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ps)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(s)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03be&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ks)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td>= +&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c3<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bc&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(m)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bd&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(n)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b3\u03b3&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(ng)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td>= nasals<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03bb&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(l)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03c1&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(r)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td>= liquids<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b6&nbsp;<span style=\"color: #000000\">(z)<\/span><\/span><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>= zeta<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u0396 \u03b6<\/span><\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;zeta<\/td>\n<td>\u201cz\u201d<\/td>\n<td>&nbsp;=&nbsp;Z z<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p><strong>&nbsp;V.&nbsp;The Full Alphabet<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Taken altogether, the Greek alphabet&nbsp;has twenty-four letters.<\/p>\n<table class=\"no-lines undefined\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u0391 \u0392 \u0393 \u0394 \u0395 \u0396 \u0397 \u0398 \u0399 \u039a \u039b \u039c \u039d \u039e \u039f \u03a0 \u03a1 \u03a3 \u03a4 \u03a5 \u03a6 \u03a7 \u03a8 \u03a9<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\">\u03b1 \u03b2 \u03b3 \u03b4 \u03b5 \u03b6 \u03b7 \u03b8 \u03b9 \u03ba \u03bb \u03bc \u03bd \u03be \u03bf \u03c0 \u03c1 \u03c3 \u03c2 \u03c4 \u03c5 \u03c6 \u03c7 \u03c8 \u03c9<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<p><strong>What&#8217;s missing?<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Note that some English consonants are not represented in the ancient Greek alphabet, such as&nbsp;<em>j<\/em>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<em>v<\/em>,&nbsp;<em>w<\/em>. Other sounds, such as &#8220;sh&#8221; in &#8220;shop&#8221; and &#8220;ch&#8221; in &#8220;chips,&#8221; are also impossible to render precisely in the Greek alphabet!<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\">&#8211; \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c4\u03ad\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 &#8211;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h2><\/h2>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Key Terms and Concepts<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>LABIALS<\/li>\n<li>DENTALS<\/li>\n<li>PALATALS<\/li>\n<li>STOP CONSONANTS<\/li>\n<li>VOICED&nbsp;STOPS<\/li>\n<li>ASPIRATED STOPS<\/li>\n<li>THE TROUBLE WITH SIGMA<\/li>\n<li>NASALS<\/li>\n<li>LIQUIDS<\/li>\n<li>DOUBLE CONSONANT<\/li>\n<li>THE CONSONANT CHART<\/li>\n<li>THE FULL ALPHABET<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Exercises<\/h3>\n<p>I. Write out the full consonant chart (a worksheet is available here: <a href=\"https:\/\/ancientgreek.pressbooks.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/48881\/2017\/09\/Blank-Consonant-Chart.pdf\">Blank Consonant Chart<\/a>).&nbsp;For a guide to writing Greek letters, click here: <a href=\"https:\/\/ancientgreek.pressbooks.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/48881\/2017\/08\/How-to-Write-Greek.pdf\">How to Write Greek<\/a>.&nbsp;Handwriting paper is available here:&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/ancientgreek.pressbooks.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/48881\/2017\/09\/Lined-Paper.pdf\">Lined Paper<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>\u0399\u0399. Practice pronouncing the following words. Stress the syllable in bold.<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba<strong>\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1<\/strong><\/li>\n<li><strong>\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1<\/strong>\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2<\/li>\n<li>\u03c8\u03c5<strong>\u03c7\u03b1\u03c2<\/strong><\/li>\n<li>\u03c3\u03c9<strong>\u03c6\u03c1\u03bf<\/strong>\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u03bf\u03bd<\/strong>\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u03bf\u03c5<\/strong>\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2<\/li>\n<li>\u03b8\u03b5\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03ba\u03c1\u03b1<strong>\u03c4\u03b9<\/strong>\u03b1<\/li>\n<li>\u03c1\u03c5\u03b8\u03bc\u03bf\u03b5\u03b9<strong>\u03b4\u03b7\u03c2<\/strong><\/li>\n<li><strong>\u03b6\u03b5\u03c5\u03b3<\/strong>\u03bd\u03c5\u03bc\u03b9<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u03b7\u03c5<\/strong>\u03c1\u03b7\u03ba\u03b1<\/li>\n<li>\u03b1\u03b8\u03bb\u03b7\u03c4\u03b9<strong>\u03ba\u1fc3<\/strong><\/li>\n<li>\u03b5\u03b3\u03c7\u03c1\u03bf<strong>\u03bd\u03b9<\/strong>\u03b6\u03c9<\/li>\n<li>\u03b5\u03be<strong>\u03b1\u03b3<\/strong>\u03c9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u03b3\u03bb\u03b9\u03c3<\/strong>\u03c7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2<\/li>\n<li>\u03c0\u03b5<strong>\u03c0\u03b1\u03c3<\/strong>\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>\u0399\u0399\u0399. Practice reading aloud the following Greek names written in capital letters.<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>\u0391\u0393\u0391\u039c\u0395\u039c\u039d\u03a9\u039d<\/li>\n<li>\u0391\u0398\u0397\u039d\u0391<\/li>\n<li>\u039f\u03a5\u03a1\u0391\u039d\u039f\u03a3<\/li>\n<li>\u039a\u039b\u03a5\u03a4\u0391\u0399\u039c\u039d\u0397\u03a3\u03a4\u03a1\u0391<\/li>\n<li>\u039f\u0399\u0394\u0399\u03a0\u039f\u03a5\u03a3<\/li>\n<li>\u0398\u0397\u03a3\u0395\u03a5\u03a3<\/li>\n<li>\u0397\u03a1\u0391\u039a\u039b\u0397\u03a3<\/li>\n<li>\u039f\u0394\u03a5\u03a3\u03a3\u0395\u03a5\u03a3<\/li>\n<li>\u03a0\u0397\u039d\u0395\u039b\u039f\u03a0\u0397<\/li>\n<li>\u03a7\u03a1\u0399\u03a3\u03a4\u039f\u03a3<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"column\"><\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"menu_order":1,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[47],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-23","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","chapter-type-standard"],"part":18,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/23","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/23\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":24,"href":"https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/23\/revisions\/24"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/18"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/23\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=23"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=23"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=23"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.publiconsulting.com\/wordpress\/ancientgreek\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=23"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}